Is Sound Eternal, as the Mimansa Philosophers Believe It to Be or Is It Transitory as the Nyaya Says?
«Behind the claim that sound is eternal appears to be the idea that it must be eternal because the utterance of the word is for the purpose of another. Without this eternality, one person could not make anything known to another, because once the...» Document abstract
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SummaryBehind the claim that sound is eternal appears to be the idea that it must be eternal because the utterance of the word is for the purpose of another. Without this eternality, one person could not make anything known to another, because once the word was spoken, it would no longer exist. Another reason why sound is seen as eternal is to validate the authority of the Vedic scripture, and to show that it is itself eternal.
In this essay I will examine this claim that the word (or sound) is eternal, as set out in the Mimansa, and also the objections to this as set out in the Nyaya (Sourcebook, 1957, pp488-501). I believe that the Mimansa view makes a lot of sense, and although it perhaps seems strange to say that sound is eternal, it does explain how we can form relations between words and groups of words. It also explains how we know a word is the same word each time we hear an utterance of it, and do not believe it to be a new and different word.
In this essay I will examine this claim that the word (or sound) is eternal, as set out in the Mimansa, and also the objections to this as set out in the Nyaya (Sourcebook, 1957, pp488-501). I believe that the Mimansa view makes a lot of sense, and although it perhaps seems strange to say that sound is eternal, it does explain how we can form relations between words and groups of words. It also explains how we know a word is the same word each time we hear an utterance of it, and do not believe it to be a new and different word.
Table of Contents
- Examineing the claim that word (or sound) is eternal.
- Argument used by the Nyaya philosophers.
- Sound seems to be multiplied by the number of people who make the sound.
- Mimansa says - objection used in the Nyaya that we often refer to ‘making' sounds is a misunderstanding.
- Mimansa seems to have an answer for nearly all the objections.
- The arguments for the eternality of sound.
«In this essay, I hope to show that some of the criticisms levelled against Hume, especially those by Robert Hambourger (1980), are not effective in their attempts to erode Hume’s argument. These issues were discussed in an article by Dorothy Coleman...» Document abstract
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SummaryIn this essay, I hope to show that some of the criticisms levelled against Hume, especially those by Robert Hambourger (1980), are not effective in their attempts to erode Hume’s argument. These issues were discussed in an article by Dorothy Coleman (1988), which I will use to outline the problems with Hambourger’s arguments.
Firstly, I will give an interpretation of Hume’s definition of a miracle, as discussed in his Enquiries Concerning Human the Understanding (Selby-Bigge ed, 1975).
Firstly, I will give an interpretation of Hume’s definition of a miracle, as discussed in his Enquiries Concerning Human the Understanding (Selby-Bigge ed, 1975).
Table of Contents
- An interpretation of Hume's definition of a miracle.
- Idea - criticised by Robert Hambourger.
- applying considerations to miracles and their credibility.
- Hume's argument against the rationality of believing in miracles.
- A look at Coleman's (1988, pp9-10) lottery example.
- What Hambourger says could have occurred.
- Conclusion.
«In my opinion, David Hume, in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, completely destroys the traditional design argument. In this essay I will outline an example of the traditional design argument, as written by Newton, and also Hume’s critique...» Document abstract
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SummaryIn my opinion, David Hume, in his Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, completely destroys the traditional design argument. In this essay I will outline an example of the traditional design argument, as written by Newton, and also Hume’s critique of this argument, in his ‘Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion’ (1779, 1990, Bell ed.) This discussion is summarised in the Robert Hurlbutt book ‘Hume, Newton and the Design Argument’ (Lincoln University Press, 1965).
Newton seems to base his theology upon the limitations of his science, which may be a bad thing, because over time science becomes updated and his theories become obsolete. However, Newton at this point introduces his design argument in a more explicit sense than before:
Newton seems to base his theology upon the limitations of his science, which may be a bad thing, because over time science becomes updated and his theories become obsolete. However, Newton at this point introduces his design argument in a more explicit sense than before:
Table of Contents
- Newton uses his scientific findings in two ways.
- In the Optics, Newton repeats his argument from design.
- Newton then appears to push his theory further.
- In his Dialogues, Hume is attacking natural theology.
- Cleanthes' argument does not even require an analogy for it to work.
- Hume's third argument that he puts forward using the voice of Philo.
«When digging deeply into Aristotle’s “The Rhetoric” it only begs the question of the origins of the author. Many of us learn about Aristotle’s legacy in grade school and learn about his works. However, many of us also fail to learn the basic...» Document abstract
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Summary When digging deeply into Aristotle’s “The Rhetoric” it only begs the question of the origins of the author. Many of us learn about Aristotle’s legacy in grade school and learn about his works. However, many of us also fail to learn the basic elements that made Aristotle who he was then and what he is today.
Aristotle was born in 384 B.C in Stagirus [a popular Greek colony]. His father was a physician to the King of Macedonia and from there Aristotle began a career of philosophy and educational entanglement (Berkeley).
He learned under the tutelage of Plato for nearly twenty years and from there he began a rather successful career himself on the side of rhetoric and scientific reasoning. Aristotle took a divergence from Plato’s train of though on several occasions but none bigger then their disagreement on the spiritual infusion of God and higher beings as a whole. This is where Aristotle and Plato broke off and Aristotle began his own practice (Griffin, 319).
Aristotle was well known throughout his time for his logic, reasoning and a syllogism known as deduction. Deduction played a major role in his teachings and belief systems. In order for Aristotle to believe something there had to be an element of touch and reality. Without this, nothing could be truly there. Therefore God could not exist in the present like many of us believe [ha, simple deduction!].
Aristotle was born in 384 B.C in Stagirus [a popular Greek colony]. His father was a physician to the King of Macedonia and from there Aristotle began a career of philosophy and educational entanglement (Berkeley).
He learned under the tutelage of Plato for nearly twenty years and from there he began a rather successful career himself on the side of rhetoric and scientific reasoning. Aristotle took a divergence from Plato’s train of though on several occasions but none bigger then their disagreement on the spiritual infusion of God and higher beings as a whole. This is where Aristotle and Plato broke off and Aristotle began his own practice (Griffin, 319).
Aristotle was well known throughout his time for his logic, reasoning and a syllogism known as deduction. Deduction played a major role in his teachings and belief systems. In order for Aristotle to believe something there had to be an element of touch and reality. Without this, nothing could be truly there. Therefore God could not exist in the present like many of us believe [ha, simple deduction!].
«Although Hegel’s concept of spirit can sound like a purely metaphysical concept, more simply it is the ultimate force of our wills. Hegel believes that the wills of individuals, (which are inherently free wills,) that make up a nation are a kind of...» Document abstract
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SummaryAlthough Hegel’s concept of spirit can sound like a purely metaphysical concept, more simply it is the ultimate force of our wills. Hegel believes that the wills of individuals, (which are inherently free wills,) that make up a nation are a kind of collective consciousness, which has an ultimate destiny. That ultimate destiny is freedom. Hegel also believes that the ultimate destiny of the human race is to realize the freedom that is already present in their wills. This process of realizing one’s freedom is the work of spirit.
«Confucius lived through a time of social change in China. Society was moving away from the old values, and towards more selfish pursuits that he felt were immoral and unjust. To this end, Confucius taught others what he felt were the core values...» Document abstract
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SummaryConfucius lived through a time of social change in China. Society was moving away from the old values, and towards more selfish pursuits that he felt were immoral and unjust. To this end, Confucius taught others what he felt were the core values of ancient Chinese culture, and in effect changed China forever.
The two most stressed values that Confucius taught were Ren, “Perfect Virtue”, and Li, “Rules of Propriety”, both of which, according to Confucius, are needed in order to become a superior man. Confucius’ idea was if each person were to become superior men on their own, there would be no need for social reform, because everyone would already be living by values that perfected China as a whole.
The two most stressed values that Confucius taught were Ren, “Perfect Virtue”, and Li, “Rules of Propriety”, both of which, according to Confucius, are needed in order to become a superior man. Confucius’ idea was if each person were to become superior men on their own, there would be no need for social reform, because everyone would already be living by values that perfected China as a whole.
«Empiricism is a view about where all knowledge comes from. Empiricism is not exclusive to scientific knowledge, but rather knowledge as a whole. This includes knowledge of everyday life. Empiricism states that science and everyday thinking have...» Document abstract
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SummaryEmpiricism is a view about where all knowledge comes from. Empiricism is not exclusive to scientific knowledge, but rather knowledge as a whole. This includes knowledge of everyday life. Empiricism states that science and everyday thinking have the same basic principles, and science is just better organized than everyday thinking. Empiricism is the view that all knowledge comes from experience. The slogan of empiricism is that “The only source of real knowledge about the world is experience.”(pg. 8). Empiricists do not think that experiencing something automatically gives a person knowledge. They realize and admit that logic and reasoning are necessary to understand things, but to them experience is completely necessary for us to understand how we learn about the world. Empiricism includes the ideas of logical positivism (which was later changed to logical empiricism). This view is based on logic, the philosophy of language, and the philosophy of mathematics. Empiricism also includes the views of sensationalism. Sensationalism is considered to be one of the classical form of empiricism and deals with idea of how the mind functions. “Sensations appear in the mind and is all that it has access to.” (pg. 19). This states that all of our experiences and thus all knowledge is based purely on our sensations. This idea is not as generally held by philosophers today. Phenomenalism is another part of empiricism that I will explain more fully later.
«Human beings, as superior animals, are born with unique cognitive processes that we have yet to identify in other animals. It is our cognition, our thoughts that set us apart from other creatures and make us who we are. However, our ability to think...» Document abstract
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SummaryHuman beings, as superior animals, are born with unique cognitive processes that we have yet to identify in other animals. It is our cognition, our thoughts that set us apart from other creatures and make us who we are. However, our ability to think and analyze is also what causes us to question what we are capable of. Within the capacity of our thoughts and minds we have complete freedom. It is the freedom of our bodies that we continue to question. Who has final control over our bodies? Philosophers, lawmakers, and the average individual have been battling with the idea of our physical freedoms for a long time. We, as human beings, have free will and because of this every action is an exercise of that freedom. Because of our free nature, despite some limitations, we have ultimate control over our bodies and our actions.
«Rage. Rage is the first word that starts the Iliad (1.1), and as beginnings go it is a substantial foundation for the story told, however leaving the question “Which Rage?”. The rage of Achilles at the death of Patrokles, the rage of Menelaus at...» Document abstract
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SummaryRage. Rage is the first word that starts the Iliad (1.1), and as beginnings go it is a substantial foundation for the story told, however leaving the question “Which Rage?”. The rage of Achilles at the death of Patrokles, the rage of Menelaus at the theft of Helen, these are the conventional, simple answers. There is, however, one more place that this rage can be found; namely, the rage had for the absurdity and futility of war. There are those that disagree, but there is much evidence to be found supporting the theory of Homers' disdain for war, mainly in the Iliad, but also other Greek and Homeric sources.
«Aristotle within his Nicomachean Ethics defines the different regions of the soul, especially the virtues and functions of each. After all his contemplation over universal ideas, such as the very essence and base of justice and wisdom, he also...» Document abstract
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Summary Aristotle within his Nicomachean Ethics defines the different regions of the soul, especially the virtues and functions of each. After all his contemplation over universal ideas, such as the very essence and base of justice and wisdom, he also realized the soul must contain a part to contemplate rational and changing ideas. This he defines in opposition to σoφíα, or intelligent wisdom, as φρόνησις, or practical wisdom. This complex idea, like Aristotle’s soul, has many regions which need to be explained before an understanding of the thing can be obtained.
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