«Divided party control of government occurs when at least one House of Congress is controlled by a party to which the President does not belong. Much of the most popular research on divided government was done prior to the 1994 elections, when the...» Document abstract
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Language : english
political science
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20/06/2008
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SummaryDivided party control of government occurs when at least one House of Congress is controlled by a party to which the President does not belong. Much of the most popular research on divided government was done prior to the 1994 elections, when the Republicans took control of the House of Representatives for the first time in 42 years (in addition to their obtaining a majority in the Senate), under Democratic president Clinton. As a result, analysis of periods of divided government can contrast the pre-1994 theories with what happened in 1994. The perceived incumbency advantage held by members of Congress explains some of the important causes of divided government. However, research on the consequences of divided government has led to a derision of the condition; it is seen as a malady afflicting the executive and legislative branches, hindering the passage of major legislation (Brady, 192). In Divided We Govern, political scientist and divided government scholar David Mayhew quotes Woodrow Wilson as saying “You cannot compound a successful government out of antagonisms” (Mayhew, 2), to which Mayhew responded “At a concrete level, this means at least that significant lawmaking can be expected to fall off when party control is divided” (Mayhew, 2). Mayhew’s goal in Divided We Govern was to show that significant lawmaking, in fact, does not fall off in times of divided government. Mayhew’s conclusion is that one of the generally assumed “consequences” of divided government turns out not to be a consequence. Although Mayhew went through a detailed explanation of how he determined which laws were “significant,” and ran statistical analyses to show that there is no marked change in the number of such significant laws passed through divided government, he did not discuss several crucial aspects of the relationship between the executive and legislative branches (Mayhew, 178). Taking into account the initial belief that divided government hinders the number of important laws passed by Congress, and Mayhew’s subsequent research proving otherwise, this leaves some of those who search for concrete consequences of divided government somewhat befuddled. However, it can be demonstrated that there are consequences of divided government: the theoretical ideology of bills (based on the spatial model of Congress) changes when government is divided, and the President is forced to exercise his veto in a manner different from when government is unified. The latter consequence is a real-life manifestation of theoretical changes upon the division of government.
Table of Contents
- Taking into account the initial belief that divided government hinders the number of important laws passed by Congress.
- Investigating causes and consequences of divided government.
- 1994 elections, voters punished the Democratic Congress for its shortcomings in following through on campaign promises.
- Suppose Democrats had compromised with Republicans - legislation more moderate than that proposed by Clinton.
- Equation (1) means that the average ideology rating of the Senate is equal to the sum of each member's ideology, divided by the total number of members.
- Analysis of veto threats during the Eisenhower presidency.
- Divided government is a complex subject, the causes and consequences of which are sometimes dealt with separately in books by different authors
«Eastern European Communist regimes deemed it necessary to cultivate a high degree of state discipline in their societies. Much of the public life and social engagement of the populace operated through mechanisms of surveillance and control. Authors...» Document abstract
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3 word format
Language : english
political science
presentation
date published
03/06/2008
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SummaryEastern European Communist regimes deemed it necessary to cultivate a high degree of state discipline in their societies. Much of the public life and social engagement of the populace operated through mechanisms of surveillance and control. Authors and scholars have argued that the regimes retained power through these measures. Milan Kundera, a twentieth-century Czech author who lived through Communism, portrays just such a post-World War II Czechoslovakia in his novel The Joke. His account suggests that Communist practices of ritualism, surveillance, and purges grew out of the larger contradiction between social equality and one-Party rule. Privacy and individualism were sacrificed at the altar of social equality; however, this notion of equality reified social class.
Table of Contents
- Fascism had ushered in an era in which hidden feelings of anti-Semitism.
- Until 1948 multiple opinions were given legitimate expression.
- Rituals were one important method of eliminating the public/private distiction.
- As individuals ceded their privacy in the service of collective action, the worth of the individual diminished in relation to the worth of his or her category.
- The irony of Communist Party rule in Czechoslovakia was that the social hierarchy was not necessarily upset but merely reversed.
«This essay will argue the case in favour of the statement that “it is nationalism which engenders nations, and not the other way around.” Ironically, the difficulties in doing so are also encountered by those who disagree with the statement. In...» Document abstract
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Language : english
political science
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date published
30/05/2008
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SummaryThis essay will argue the case in favour of the statement that “it is nationalism which engenders nations, and not the other way around.” Ironically, the difficulties in doing so are also encountered by those who disagree with the statement. In the first place, there has yet to be any real consensus reached among historians on the question. Secondly, definitions of the terms “nationalism” and “nation” vary from one source to another, and thirdly, a large proportion of this debate relies on the context in which the argument is made, i.e. the time-frame and historical references used.
Table of Contents
- The aims of this essay are threefold; to clarify, to analyze and to exemplify.
- These terms are often used interchangeably but a very clear distinction needs to be made between the two.
- It has already been said that a nation is not something overly definitive, so how can we justify its existence?
- The meaning of 'nationalism' changes frequently according to the contexts in which it is used.
- Language as a basis for nationhood was a theory ardently supported by Herder.
«The Equal Rights Amendment, better known as the ERA, is an amendment requiring that both sexes be treated equally under the law. It has been a matter of heated debate and battle for the last 83 years. The ERA was first introduced to Congress in...» Document abstract
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4 word format
Language : english
political science
presentation
date published
23/05/2008
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level : Advanced
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SummaryThe Equal Rights Amendment, better known as the ERA, is an amendment requiring that both sexes be treated equally under the law. It has been a matter of heated debate and battle for the last 83 years. The ERA was first introduced to Congress in 1923; three years after the 19th Amendment had passed. It was written by Alice Paul, the same activist who had gotten the 19th Amendment passed. This was her next project, and would continue to be the National Women’s Party’s primary goal for the rest of her lifespan.
Table of Contents
- The NWP's arguments were simple.
- Alice Paul's primary opponents were the older women's rights activists.
- First and foremost, although the difference is not nearly as severe as in 1923, there is still a definite discrepancy in men's and women's pay.
- Another debate is reproductive rights.
- Another important issue, similar to the wage difficulties, is that of pensions and Social Security.
- Lesbians and gays are particularly discriminated against in child-custody battles.
- The Forum also notes that an ERA would require women to sign up with the draft, and eliminate any ability for Congress to exempt them from the draft.
«The National Rifle Association is among both the most effective and most controversial lobbying groups in the United States today. While their initial intention is to preserve people’s right to bear arms, they have done so by staunchly opposing any...» Document abstract
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5 word format
Language : english
political science
research papers
date published
16/05/2008
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level : Advanced
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SummaryThe National Rifle Association is among both the most effective and most controversial lobbying groups in the United States today. While their initial intention is to preserve people’s right to bear arms, they have done so by staunchly opposing any piece of legislation specifically targeting any form of gun control. This has allowed legislation that could prove to be harmful to citizens to pass, and potentially life saving legislation to fail. While the NRA has made some big concessions over the years, they have remained largely successful in their mission to ensure that gun control laws do not supersede individual rights.
Table of Contents
- The NRA, the Snipers of the Lobbying World.
- Following Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans authorities began confiscating weapons from victims of the catastrophe.
- Another integral division of the National Rifle Association is their Political Victory Fund (NRA-PVF).
- Realizing just how effective the divisions of the NRA are it is clear that they, as an organization play an active role in the legislative process.
- Once the issue goes beyond common human decency, as so many of the NRA issues do, it then becomes a power struggle.
- The NRA along with many other pressure groups have the power to not only influence but create public policy.
- Clinton made it clear that the Brady Bill was a necessity.
«Since the United States' foundation, the people have constitutionally been granted the right to assemble and express themselves freely. The most effective assemblies over time have become the active voices of the people, pursuing fair legislation...» Document abstract
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Language : english
political science
research papers
date published
12/05/2008
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SummarySince the United States' foundation, the people have constitutionally been granted the right to assemble and express themselves freely. The most effective assemblies over time have become the active voices of the people, pursuing fair legislation when deemed necessary through the lobbying of congressmen, senators and other members of government. It is democracy in action, and it can be an arduous process with a long and gradual learning curve. Lobbying is a form of education with its own distinct set of defined skills within the parameters of broader teaching techniques. Utilizing theories of communication and literacy, complex dialogue between lobbyist and legislator, and strategic explanation of data, a lobbyist's goal is to bring the legislator to the logical, educated conclusion that a certain issue-at-hand must be acted upon for the public good.
Table of Contents
- Lobbying requires the comprehension of legislative documents, as well as the ability to refute or propose the benefits proposed within these potential laws.
- The communication process of lobbying can be divided up into three major factors.
- It is in the best interest to act as a secondary educator.
- The most important technique in a lobbyist's arsenal is called the ask.
- The more advanced a conversation becomes between legislator and lobbyist, the facts become more prevalent.
- Without practicing educational techniques, the representative will never expand his literacy at a social scale.
«The emergence of Kosovo as a modern nation-state is a recent development, tracing its immediate roots to the 1990s. At this time Kosovo was still a province of Serbia and under the authority of Serbia’s leader, Slobodan Milosevic. Milosevic went to...» Document abstract
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Language : english
political science
case study
date published
05/05/2008
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SummaryThe emergence of Kosovo as a modern nation-state is a recent development, tracing its immediate roots to the 1990s. At this time Kosovo was still a province of Serbia and under the authority of Serbia’s leader, Slobodan Milosevic. Milosevic went to extreme measures to put down the insurgency that had arisen in Kosovo in the form of the Kosovo Liberation Army: he authorized the massacre and expulsion of tens of thousands of ethnic Albanians from Kosovo. The international community reacted and NATO commenced a three-month bombing campaign against Serbia in 1999, resulting in Milosevic’s withdrawal from Kosovo. UN Resolution 1244 placed Kosovo under the authority of the UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, maintaining the territorial integrity of Serbia but giving UNMIK, as it is called, complete control over the affairs of Kosovo
Table of Contents
- Recent History of Kosovo.
- Importance of Civil Society.
- History of Civil Society in Kosovo.
- Civil Society Advantages.
- Civil Society Disadvantages.
- Civil Society Organizations in Kosovo Today.
- Conclusion.
«The United States, despite its libertarian ideals and emphasis on equality, has more than once turned its back on its own citizens. Slavery, the most bruising, shameful mark in the history of this democracy, divided the American culture even after...» Document abstract
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4 word format
Language : english
political science
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date published
01/05/2008
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SummaryThe United States, despite its libertarian ideals and emphasis on equality, has more than once turned its back on its own citizens. Slavery, the most bruising, shameful mark in the history of this democracy, divided the American culture even after the Civil War ended and the slaves were freed. In the nineteenth century and twentieth century black society continually fought for their civil rights, pursuing an equality of opportunity that all citizens should find inalienable and duly granted at birth. Despite this, this pursuit of happiness was not without a long and complex history. From the Atlanta Compromise of Booker T. Washington to the Niagara Movement's eventual creation of the NAACP, the struggle for African American equality has been consistently evolving. Regardless of the differences in philosophical approaches towards achieving equality, the common factor within the civil rights movement has been the stress of unity, and the search for peaceful resolution through legislative and judicial means.
Table of Contents
- The forerunner of black rights in America following the Civil War was Booker T.
- His arguments, purely capitalist in design, attested the importance of innovation.
- DuBois himself was philosophically different from Washington in terms of overcoming racial inequality.
- In 1957, the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights passed the Civil Rights Act.
- Literally, blacks and whites were banding together in the south and revolted against the biased and prejudiced laws plaguing black equality of access.
- The Black Panthers, finally, organized a party that was political and militant above all else.
«In independent Madagascar, while citizens celebrate a free media system, their simultaneous struggle for media access puts them at great disadvantage. Formerly a French colony, Madagascar has only had its independence for several decades, little...» Document abstract
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3 word format
Language : english
political science
presentation
date published
01/05/2008
review : not yet assessed
level : Advanced
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SummaryIn independent Madagascar, while citizens celebrate a free media system, their simultaneous struggle for media access puts them at great disadvantage. Formerly a French colony, Madagascar has only had its independence for several decades, little time to build an effective media and communication system. From government-run and privately owned radio and television to the massive telecommunications depreciation in the 1980s, Madagascar has had to fight to compete in the global arena. Throughout the 1990s, the telecommunications industry was able to recover, and in the past few years, new radio stations have been established (CIA). Still, Madagascar is one of the poorest nations in the world, making it difficult to compete equally with the West (Internews 5).
Table of Contents
- Madagascar was a French colony until 1960 when independence was restored.
- Recently, independent station Radio Say was forced to shut down after 'broadcasting false news.
- While radio in Madagascar is known for its integrity, journalists still face obstacles.
- Radio Don Bosco is a nationwide Catholic FM station.
- Telephone and Internet access is sparse and newspaper delivery can take days.
- Madagascar, with its lush jungles and diverse wildlife population, is literally an island to itself.
«In the 1960s Prague was abuzz with artistic excitement. Prague had long been the site of innovative creations in classical music and theater, but now the films coming out of the state sponsored film industry were making headlines, not only in...» Document abstract
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7 word format
Language : english
political science
research papers
date published
28/04/2008
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SummaryIn the 1960s Prague was abuzz with artistic excitement. Prague had long been the site of innovative creations in classical music and theater, but now the films coming out of the state sponsored film industry were making headlines, not only in Eastern Europe, but around the world. Czech films were winning Academy Awards in the US, being shown at the World Expo in Belgium, and being hailed by many in both the East and West as an artistic miracle. Most of these films went beyond simple art though. For many of the directors making films during the Czech Film Miracle moviemaking was a form of dissent; there only way of speaking out against a government that financially supported them but artistically and personally suppressed them.
Table of Contents
- The film industry in Czechoslovakia became nationalized on August 11, 1945.
- Many filmmakers initial enthusiasm for nationalized cinema quickly dampened in 1948.
- The Great Initiative sought to strengthen the social realism aspect of films.
- In 1956 most of the countries in the Eastern Bloc experienced a period of loosening Communist control.
- The background of the new generation of filmmakers had a major influence on their artistic work.
- In 1962 Sunshine in a Net, widely considered the first Czech New Wave film, was made by director Stefan Uher.
- Czech New Wave did not have the same cohesive style as the French New Wave films.
- The films of the Czech New Wave formed a movement not because they shared stylistic concerns.
- 1968 there was a window of opportunity that allowed the artistic vision of several generations to be realized.
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