the united states and international religious freedom

4 word format

Language : english

international relations

presentation

date published

25/01/2007

review : not yet assessed

level : General public

requested 6 times

Summary

In 1998, the International Religious Freedom Act (IRFA) created both the International Religious Freedom Office in the Department of State and the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF). Since this date, a report has been produced every year within the United States, “reviewing and making policy recommendations on the facts and circumstances of religious freedom violations globally”. In other words, it evaluates every country on its “religious freedom”, designates “countries of particular concern” and makes recommandations to the American government. Hence, the United States tend to impose to the whole world its own conception of what should be the relations between Church and State.

This paper will attempt to show why it is very dangerous for the United States to try to evaluate the religious freedom of other countries and to promote “religious freedom” as a foreign policy goal. The United States, whose foundation is linked with the immigration of people fleeing religious persecution in Europe, has a particular conception of religious freedom, which is reflected in the religious clauses of the First amendment to the United States Constitution, stating that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof...”. I consider that this conception should not, in any case, be used to judge other countries.

Due to the complexity of this question, which has been resolved in many different ways both in the world and throughout history, it is totally inappropriate to try to evaluate in a unilateral way how the different countries of our world deal with the relations between church and state
The International Freedom Act of 1998 has strong ideological biases, which makes it an inefficient instrument to judge the religious freedom within foreign countries

$2.95

3 word format

Language : english

international relations

research papers

date published

01/04/2007

review : not yet assessed

level : Advanced

requested 1 times

Summary

The Pope, as a spiritual and temporal leader, wields a double sovereignty: over the City of the Vatican as Head of State, and over the Holy See (or Apostolic See) as Head of the Roman Catholic Church. This fundamental distinction, “perennialized” by the 1929 Latran accords, is at the basis of the papal foreign policy: although it is sometimes designed as the emanation of the Vatican’s national sovereignty, it is generally carried out in the name of the Holy See (the religious authority).

Introduction
History and structure of the Holy See's diplomatic corps
1. The World's oldest diplomatic services
2. The diplomatic hierarchy
3. Representation in States
4. Representation in International and Regional Organizations
A very particular situation on the international scene
1. 'The Pope, how many divisions ' a foreign policy based on time and soft power
2. The Holy See has a very specific situation on the diplomatic scene
An overview of the Holy See's priorities
1. The protection of Catholics around the World
2. Human and nations' rights

$5.95

6 word format

Language : english

international relations

presentation

date published

19/06/2008

review : not yet assessed

level : Advanced

requested 0 times

Summary

Kosovo is located in the southern province of the Republic of Serbia in Western Balkans (see Appendix One). The administrative capital is Pristina and the province is separated into thirty municipalities. Kosovo’s last official census in 1991 registered its approximately two million population to be composed of eighty-two percent ethnic Albanians, ten percent Serbs and eight percent Montenegrins, Croats, Turks, Gypsies, Muslims, and others. The nature of the state contested involves disputes between the two main ethnic groups: Serbs and Albanians. These two groups share a long history as residents in the same territory and are commonly referred to as Kosovars, although they differ in their ethnic roots, languages, religious affinities, customs, and culture. Religion was never the centerpiece of the conflict between the two groups, yet over the years, has been manipulated by politicians for ideological purposes.

Keywords: Balkans, UNMIK, NATO

The nature of the state contested involves disputes between the two main ethnic groups.
From the lens of the stakeholders.
The security and safety of the Kosovo Serbs - also a major concern.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) began air strikes in March 1999 without UN approval.
The role of UNMIK:
Why is Kosovo relevant to international politics?
Any legal change in Kosovo's final status would require a UNSC resolution.
Kosovar Serbs and Albanians must be realistic in their demands.

$7.95

8 word format

Language : english

international law

presentation

date published

12/04/2007

review : not yet assessed

level : Advanced

requested 17 times

Summary

“The very concept of individual accountability – indeed – the very idea that an act could be ‘criminal’ was antithetical to International law during much of its history […] With narrow exceptions, individuals held no rights and bore no responsibilities under International law, provided some protection for individuals through the laws of war, but these were derivative of the rights that states had against other states” declared the Harvard Law Review . Further on, it deduced from the statements above that “the costs of such lacunae were demonstrated by the atrocities of World War II. […] the failure to prosecute after earlier wars create[d] a sense of impunity on the part of war criminals” . The Nuremberg Trials put an end to the ‘golden age’ of/for war criminals by initiating the development of international criminal accountability . Between 1946 and 1960, “similar proceedings” confirmed the principles established by the Nuremberg precedents, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 1948 and the Four Geneva Conventions of 1949. However, they didn’t raise new legal aspects; either because “they involve[d] trials of former Axis nationals by courts of countries that had been occupied during the war” like in the major Nuremberg trials, or the “acts tried were committed on the territory of the adjudicating state and proceedings were conducted according to the lex loci” , that is, mainly, German law applied by German courts.
It is necessary to bear in mind this context in order to fully appreciate the significance of the Eichmann case. Unlike the cases that followed the Nuremberg Major War Criminals Trial, the Eichmann didn’t involve the ex-Allies or the countries occupied by the Nazi military forces, it was not explicitly supported by the international community, not through the United Nations Organisation, neither Eichmann nor the victims were of Israeli nationality… In short/in brief, there are many brand new/original features that make the case likely not only to set a precedent, but also to mark a turning point in International criminal law. The Eichmann trial started/launched the debate on what the priorities of International Criminal law should be and what procedural concessions the international community can tolerate in order to achieve the main objectives without endangering the accomplishment of Justice.
First, we will discuss whether the principle known as “the fruit of the poisonous tree” in the United States must be applied to the abduction of Adolf Eichmann or not. The violation of International law was “clear” to Louis Henkin in 1968 but one can argue that the end justifies the means somehow . Then, the trial in itself has to be analysed in both procedural and substantive terms. The jurisdiction of the Israeli court, the nature of the law it applied and the fairness of the proceedings will be brought into focus. Eventually, the topicality of the case will be highlighted.

The abduction of Adolf Eichmann from Argentina to Israel: ‘the fruit of the poisonous tree?
1. The Facts
2. Their Justification
Procedural and substantive aspects of the trial: how the Eichmann trial launched a rich debate on many International criminal law issues
1. The Jurisdiction of the Israeli ad hoc court
2. Nature of the Law applied, line of defence and procedural issues

$8.95

9 word format

Language : english

literature

presentation

date published

03/01/2006

review : not yet assessed

level : General public

requested 1 times

Summary

The 19th Century in Europe, and especially in England, is marked by the appearances of new artistic movements. Aestheticism is one the most importante because it embodies a real change in the mentality and in art, considered as self sufficient. Immanuel Kant is one of the pioneers of it, and certainly the most important. But aestheticism is most of all represented by the great Irish writer: Oscar Wilde.

The Aesthetic movement
1. Definition
2. Historical background
3. The changes in art
A pioneer: Immanuel Kant
1. Biography
2. The beautiful", an object of a disinterested satisfaction
3. The "beautiful", a "form of finality"
An important figure: Oscar Wilde
1. Biography
2. His theory
3. His only novel, reflection of his theory

$5.95

6 word format

Language : english

humanities/philosophy

presentation

date published

07/10/2004

review : not yet assessed

level : Expert

requested 39 times

Summary

First, we will see that if protestant theology has undoubtedly influenced the early expansion of capitalism in America, it is probably no longer the main factor explaining the important commitment of Protestants to modern capitalism. As an illustration of this fact, we will show that even among fundamentalist Protestants, there is no longer a consensus about the theological justifications of capitalism (I). Today, however, what favours the capitalist skills of Protestants seems to be less theology than the fact that Protestantism is divided in well-organized communities, some of which function as successful profit-making organizations actively participating to the worldwide expansion of capitalism (II)...

The protestant roots which grounds capitalism theologically.
1. Weber's thesis : ´the protestant ethic and the spirit if capaitalism´.
2. Can Weber's thesis be justified in.
Are protestant sects better capitalist organizations?.
1. The origins of the economic superiority of protestant sects in America.
2. Protestant sects at the heart of modern capitalism.

$4.95

5 word format

Language : english

international relations

research papers

date published

19/12/2007

review : not yet assessed

level : General public

requested 0 times

Summary

This year, December 10, 2007 is a day of many important deadlines. Not only is it the day the independence of Kosovo is said to be decided, but it is also the date by which the handover of Ratko Mladic to the ICTY is supposed to occur. Both of these could prove to be fateful days in the history of Southeastern Europe, or they could fall through the cracks of history as just another failed deadline.
The ICTY is a United Nations-created body established to prosecute serious crimes committed during the wars in the former Yugoslavia from 1991-1996. It is unable to try organizations or governments, only individuals, and its maximum sentence is life imprisonment. Its main targets are individuals responsible for persecution of Bosnian Muslim and Croat civilians on national, political, and religious grounds; those who have targeted political leaders, intellectuals, and professionals; the unlawful deportation and shelling of civilians; as well as the destruction of homes, businesses, and places of worship. The most important thing “about prosecuting war crimes is not to get the individuals who may have committed those crimes – the lowly soldiers, thugs, paramilitary types of police officers – but to get the most senior political and military leadership responsible for having ordered those crimes” (Paul Risley, spokesman).

$7.95

8 word format

Language : english

humanities/philosophy

presentation

date published

03/05/2007

review : not yet assessed

level : General public

requested 6 times

Summary

There is no country in the world where women are treated equally to men. Women are consistently fed less than men, given fewer educational opportunities, and fewer freedoms. Situations in developing countries are often more overtly detrimental to women, for example in India, it is estimated that “one woman is raped every 54 minute, and rape cases increased 32% between 1990 and 1997” (Nussbaum quoting India Abroad, Women and Human Development, p. 3). However, women’s inequality is not simply a “Third World” issue; it is a problem that affects women’s lives every day in nearly every country. For example, a similar type of statistic can be found for the United States: “Every two and a half minutes, somewhere in America, someone is sexually assaulted”. Obviously the occurrence of rape in America is much higher than that of India, especially since India has a population about four times as large as the United States. While looking at these numbers, which in no way reflect the magnitude of problems women face, one must ask, how can women flourish if they cannot be assured basic bodily integrity and freedom from harm? Martha Nussbaum seeks to try and provide a theory to answer this question. Her Capabilities Approach establishes ten capabilities that Nussbaum believes are necessary for women to have the ability to fight inequalities or at least to secure a stable life for themselves.

Many critics have attacked her approach because it seems too universalistic
Nussbaum argues that, in order to be an effective feminist and critic of the status quo...
Nussbaum, and other feminists, believe that accusations of 'Westernization' are ways of discrediting activists struggling for change
Obviously, these views clearly devalue women's contributions and abilities
Moreover, Nussbaum believes that moral relativism asks people to follow or tolerate local traditions, which tend not to be relative
These criticisms are some of the major obstacles that a supporter of universal values faces
Nussbaum strives to separate capabilities and functioning
Nussbaum offers very convincing responses to most of her critiques
While Nussbaum's theory is very clear on paper, it is difficult to see how it could be implemented in a society like India all at once

$3.95

4 word format

Language : english

history 1789 to present

term papers

date published

03/05/2007

review : not yet assessed

level : General public

requested 7 times

Summary

After World War I, Communism reigned in Russia, which became known as the Soviet Union (USSR). As Karl Marx said, Communism would only be successful if it occurred as a worldwide revolution; thus by its nature, Communism needed to spread. Therefore, after World War II, the Western Allies, primarily England and the United States, granted the Soviet Union all the territories that it had liberated from the Nazis, which included most of Eastern Europe and parts of Central Europe. Very clear spheres of influence were established: Western Europe was heavily influenced by the United States, and its brand of consumerism; whereas Eastern Europe fell behind the Iron Curtain of Communism. Thus, with the creation of the Warsaw Pact in May 1955, the Soviet Union and its satellite states “formed an alliance of ‘friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance’ under a unified command” (Postwar, p. 246). The occupation of the satellite states would last for over forty years, and the Warsaw Pact alliance for more than thirty. However, between 1989 and 1991, Communism in the Soviet Union and its satellites collapsed. Many factors precipitated the fall, including the system’s inability to provide for the consumer needs of its citizens, the very expensive arms race with the US, the rise of opposition movements, such as Solidarity, the oil crisis in the 1970s, citizen’s loss of faith in a Socialist utopia, and military blunders, such as the invasion of Afghanistan. While all of these factors were significant in the collapse of Communism, the system could not have been demolished if Moscow did not allow it to happen (inadvertently or not). Thus, along with many important economic, cultural, and political factors, Mikhail Gorbachev and his programs of non-intervention, glasnost and perestoika allowed the satellite states to break away from the Soviet Union, which in turn led to destabilization in the heart of the Union itself.

Looking at the economic situation in the USSR
These consumer problems were exacerbated by the oil crisis in the 1970s
Another factor that contributed to the Soviet Union's demise
One of Gorbachev's most important reforms
Poland is a good example of how distinct cultural issues crippled Communism
The Communist party in Poland was losing power
Gorbachev's policy of non-intervention in satellite states
The fall of Communism yielded many serious consequences
The catastrophe at Chernobyl is just one example of the environmental disasters of the Soviet system

$5.95

6 word format

Language : english

political science

research papers

date published

30/08/2007

review : not yet assessed

level : Expert

requested 4 times